OPTION A — READ THE TEXT AND ANSWER QUESTIONS 1 TO 5.

THE UNBREAKABLE BOND BETWEEN HUMANS AND DOGS

Why is he here? Why is my dog lying at my feet in the shape of a croissant as I write this? How has his fish breath become a topic of humour when friends call round for dinner? Why do I spend more than £1,000 each year to pay for his insurance? And why do I love him so much?

Ludo is not a special dog. He's just another labrador retriever, one of approximately 500,000 in the UK (he'd be one in a million in the United States, the most popular breed in both countries). Ludo has (line 5) a lot in common with all these dogs. He loves to play ball; obviously he's an expert retriever. He could eat all the food in the universe and leave nothing for the other dogs. He is prone to hip dysplasia. He looks particularly attractive on a plush bed in a centrally heated house very far from the Newfoundland home of his ancestors.

But, of course, Ludo is a unique animal to me, and the rest of his human family. He is now an (line 10) elderly gentleman aged 12 and a half, and we would do almost anything to ensure his continued happiness. We schedule our days around his needs — his mealtimes, his walks, the delivery of his life-saving medication (he has epilepsy). We spend a bizarrely large amount of our disposable income on him, and he never sends a card of thanks. When he's not with us for a few days (when our children take him for a weekend), then the house feels extraordinarily empty. I feel so fortunate to know him. Goodness (line 15) knows how we'll cope when he dies.

This strongest of bonds has manifested itself over the centuries, and transformed so many millions of lives, human and canine. If it is at least partially true, as Nietzsche claims, that "The world exists through the understanding of dogs," then perhaps it is also partially true that a study of dogs may provide a valuable insight into ourselves. (line 20) (Fragment adapted from The Guardian.)

OPTION B — READ THE TEXT AND ANSWER QUESTIONS 1 TO 5.

VANISHING ACT

A large number of pupils have gone missing during the epidemic. How worrying is this?

Analyses are limited, but a deep dive into preliminary data from Massachusetts' public schools by Thomas Dee of Stanford University and Mark Murphy of the University of Hawaii shows that most traditional public districts in the state had enrolment declines this year in comparison with last year. Massachusetts experienced a 4% statewide loss in this academic year compared with the year before. Not (line 5) all districts lost pupils, however; vocational and virtual districts saw increases.

Some of the decline is no cause for concern. A portion of Massachusetts public-school pupils are probably attending classes out of state, while others are leaving for private schools or homeschooling. Other pupils are simply missing school, however. Mr Dee and Mr Murphy found that enrolment decreases were associated with smaller, whiter and poorer school districts, mostly in rural areas. (line 10)

That echoes a concern heard beyond Massachusetts. David Monaco, head of Parish Episcopal School, a private school in Dallas, saw some pupils leave for more personalised small-group or individual schooling, though his overall enrolment remains steady. By contrast, Michael Hinojosa, the superintendent of Dallas Independent School District, where 85% of all pupils are classified as low-income, explained that while some of his pupils could be sitting at home playing video games, others are (line 15) taking care of younger siblings while their parents work.

Pupils missing school are not just a worry for their families. Since America's schools are funded on a per-person basis, the decline in enrolments also creates financial problems. And all schools risk losing funding next year if enrolment continues to fall.

Getting missing pupils back to school takes an extraordinary effort. Sara Bonser, superintendent (line 20) of the Piano Independent School District north of Dallas, lost 6.5% of her pupils (3,883) at the beginning of the year. To find these children, her staff called thousands of families and conducted 115 home visits to get 1,279 pupils back on the books. Existing district funds were reallocated so no additional money was needed for the programme. (Fragment adapted from The Economist.)